Below are descriptions of reading, writing, and spelling disorders. Although these descriptions are listed separately, individuals can experience deficits in multiple areas. For example, deficits in word recognition and reading comprehension often co-occur; the terms “poor readers” or “garden variety readers” are sometimes used to describe these individuals. Similarly, a person can have difficulty with the writing process as well as with generating the written product.
Labels for reading disorders include dyslexia, reading disability, reading disorder, specific reading disorder, andspecific reading comprehension deficit. Writing disorder labels also vary, with some being dysgraphia, writing disability, writing disorder, and specific writing disorder.
Reading disorders and writing disorders can occur alone but are often present together. Spelling impairment can affect both reading and writing; there is a bidirectional relationship between spelling and word reading such that difficulty or progress in one area can influence performance in the other area.
Deficits in reading, writing, and spelling can affect one or more language domains (see table below). For a detailed description of the language domains as they relate to spoken and written language, see language in brief.
Metalinguistic and metacognitive skills (awareness of language and of one's own thinking and behavior) are incorporated within the table. Metalinguistic awareness has an impact on both spoken language and written language abilities, to varying degrees. Phonological awareness is one type of metalinguistic skill, which has been shown to be highly correlated with later reading and writing skills (Al Otaiba, Puranik, Zilkowski, & Curran, 2009).
Areas to consider in assessing and treating written language disorders as well as differentially diagnosing within and across spoken and written language disorders are also included in the table. For more comprehensive lists, see the Assessment and Treatment sections of the Written Language Disorders Portal Page.
Description of Disorder | Language Domains Primarily Affected | Focus of Assessment/Treatment | ||||||
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Phonology | Morphology | Syntax | Semantics | Pragmatics | ||||
Reading | Word Recognition |
Sometimes referred to as Dyslexia Difficulty exists despite adequate instruction and absence of intellectual, sensory, or neurological difficulties
|
X | X |
|
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Reading Comprehension |
Sometimes referred to as Specific Comprehension Deficit or Hyperlexia
Differentiate hyperlexia from precocious reading, the presence of advanced word recognition and advanced reading comprehension skills in typically developing children |
X | X | X | X |
|
||
Writing | Writing Process |
Sometimes referred to as Dysgraphia Dysgraphia is a term used for problems with transcription; it can occur alone but often accompanies dyslexia and may occur with other learning disabilities Dysgraphia encompasses both motoric and linguistic-cognitive aspects of writing; linguistic-cognitive aspects are involved in the writing process and the writing product
Dysgraphia, as it relates to the writing process, involves difficulty planning, drafting, reflecting on, revising, and editing one's writing
|
X | X |
|
|||
Writing Product |
Sometimes referred to as Dysgraphia Dysgraphia, as it relates to the writing product involves
|
X | X | X | X | X |
|
|
Spelling | Can Affect both reading and writing |
Sometimes referred to as Dysorthography Difficulty with the encoding of phonological information; this is a particular area of weakness for most individuals with dyslexia
|
X | X |
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Spoken and Written Language | Can Affect Reading, Writing, and Spelling |
May be referred to as Oral and Written Language Learning Disability Oral written language disorders involve problems of similar severity that cross multiple systems.
|
X | X | X | X | X |
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Al Otaiba, S., Puranik, C. S., Zilkowski, R. A., & Curran, T. (2009). Effectiveness of early phonological awareness interventions for students with speech or language impairments. The Journal of Special Education, 43, 107-128.